Causal Inference with Missing Exposures and Missing Outcomes

Statistics > Methodology [Submitted on 3 Jun 2025 (v1), last revised 16 Jun 2026 (this version, v4)] Title:Causal Inference with Missing Exposures and Missing Outcomes View PDF HTML (experimental)Abstract:Missing data are ubiquitous in public health research. When estimating causal effects, there are well-established methods to address bias to due missing outcomes. Commonly, causal estimands are defined under hypothetical interventions to "set" the exposure and to prevent missingness. We demonstrate how this framework can be extended to missing exposures. We further extend this framework to incorporate missingness on the baseline outcome, which induces missingness on the population of interest (e.g., persons at-risk). To do so, we highlight Counterfactual Strata Effects, a general class of causal estimands where the focus population is subject to missingness and/or impacted by the exposure. They are termed such because the estimand involves conditioning on a counterfactual this http URL each setting, we present the causal model, relevant counterfactuals, causal estimand, and identification result. We demonstrate with a real-data example to investigate the effect of alcohol consumption on the risk of incident tuberculosis (TB) infection in rural Uganda. We highlight the use of TMLE with Super Learner for estimation and inference and discuss the practical consequences of our approach. Submission history From: Laura Balzer PhD [view email][v1] Tue, 3 Jun 2025 19:28:57 UTC (302 KB) [v2] Sat, 11 Oct 2025 18:07:17 UTC (248 KB) [v3] Tue, 14 Apr 2026 13:39:01 UTC (290 KB) [v4] Tue, 16 Jun 2026 00:09:13 UTC (288 KB) References & Citations Loading... Bibliographic and Citation Tools Bibliographic Explorer (What is the Explorer?) Connected Papers (What is Connected Papers?) Litmaps (What is Litmaps?) scite Smart Citations (What are Smart Citations?) Code, Data and Media Associated with this Article alphaXiv (What is alphaXiv?) CatalyzeX Code Finder for Papers (What is CatalyzeX?) DagsHub (What is DagsHub?) Gotit.pub (What is GotitPub?) Hugging Face (What is Huggingface?) ScienceCast (What is ScienceCast?) Demos Recommenders and Search Tools Influence Flower (What are Influence Flowers?) CORE Recommender (What is CORE?) arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website. Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them. Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs.