End-to-End Quantum Key Distribution Across Hybrid Fiber and Free-Space Links with All-Optical Encoding Conversion

Quantum key distribution (QKD) promises information-theoretically secure communication, but future networks must bridge fiber and free-space links that naturally employ different photonic encodings, namely time-bin in fiber and polarization in free space.

Here we demonstrate a complete hybrid fiber and free-space QKD link that bridges both media within a single end-to-end protocol, converting between the two encodings entirely in the optical domain.

Using the decoy-state BB84 protocol operating at 1550 nm, we demonstrate continuous secure-key generation over a 90 m outdoor free-space link.

The system operates across atmospheric conditions spanning more than two orders of magnitude in the refractive-index structure parameter Cn^2, from strong daytime turbulence to quiescent nighttime conditions, and we further validate photon-level operation over a 750 m free-space extension.

Throughout, the link maintains a session-mean quantum bit error rate (QBER) of 5.6-6.8%, well below the 11% BB84 security threshold.

The encoding conversion is performed entirely in the optical domain without measurement or state reconstruction, preserving the security assumptions of the BB84 protocol.

Consequently, the time-bin-to-polarization (T2P) and polarization-to-time-bin (P2T) converters remain part of the untrusted quantum channel rather than trusted intermediate nodes.

These results establish secure photonic encoding conversion as a practical interface between fiber and free-space quantum communication platforms, providing a building block for future quantum networks applications.